Byzantine fortifications and their natural settings in crete: A geo-spatial analysis
Journal
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
ISSN
2352-409X
Date Issued
October 2026
Abstract
Byzantine fortifications are increasingly understood from contemporary research not as isolated or static military structures but as elements integrated into their environmental, social, and historical settings. This study examines three Middle Byzantine fortifications in the Kissamos region of northwestern Crete: Polyrrhenia, Malathyros, and Rokka. The sites, which vary in type and scale, date to the late 10th to early 13th centuries AD. Their placement is assessed through a combination of archaeological methods, including Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing, and additionally complemented with historical sources. The analysis considers the fortifications’ relative placement to nearby arable land, grazing areas, coastal access, and possible land routes. GIS results show that Polyrrhenia commanded wide views over the coastal plain and maintained intervisibility with Malathyros and Rokka, allowing for communication and coordinated defense. Malathyros, offered more limited coastal views, yet provided oversight toward the Spatha promontory and strengthened inland connectivity. Rokka oversaw fertile catchments and had quick access to the coast, functioning as a smaller but multifunctional stronghold. Least-cost path modeling indicates that the three fortified sites were within two to three hours walking distance, supporting mobility and resource access. Land use and land cover mapping confirms that the fortifications were embedded in productive agricultural and pastoral zones. These results suggest that the fortifications formed an interconnected system of defense, resource management, and communication rather than serving only as separate defensive outposts. They reflect a deliberate dual strategic objective, in which security and economic sustainability were intertwined, with fortifications safeguarding both population and production. This perspective enhances our broader understanding of how Byzantine frontier strategies integrated military needs with local resources and may offer a comparative framework for analyzing fortified landscapes, both in other areas of the island and across Greece or the wider Byzantine Empire.
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