Hybrid Open Access
Green Open AccessByzantine fortifications and their natural settings in crete: A geo-spatial analysis
Journal
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
ISSN
2352-409X
Date Issued
October 2026
Abstract
Byzantine fortifications are increasingly understood from contemporary research not as isolated or static military structures but as elements integrated into their environmental, social, and historical settings. This study examines three Middle Byzantine fortifications in the Kissamos region of northwestern Crete: Polyrrhenia, Malathyros, and Rokka. The sites, which vary in type and scale, date to the late 10th to early 13th centuries AD. Their placement is assessed through a combination of archaeological methods, including Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing, and additionally complemented with historical sources. The analysis considers the fortifications’ relative placement to nearby arable land, grazing areas, coastal access, and possible land routes. GIS results show that Polyrrhenia commanded wide views over the coastal plain and maintained intervisibility with Malathyros and Rokka, allowing for communication and coordinated defense. Malathyros, offered more limited coastal views, yet provided oversight toward the Spatha promontory and strengthened inland connectivity. Rokka oversaw fertile catchments and had quick access to the coast, functioning as a smaller but multifunctional stronghold. Least-cost path modeling indicates that the three fortified sites were within two to three hours walking distance, supporting mobility and resource access. Land use and land cover mapping confirms that the fortifications were embedded in productive agricultural and pastoral zones. These results suggest that the fortifications formed an interconnected system of defense, resource management, and communication rather than serving only as separate defensive outposts. They reflect a deliberate dual strategic objective, in which security and economic sustainability were intertwined, with fortifications safeguarding both population and production. This perspective enhances our broader understanding of how Byzantine frontier strategies integrated military needs with local resources and may offer a comparative framework for analyzing fortified landscapes, both in other areas of the island and across Greece or the wider Byzantine Empire.
Affiliation
Funding
This study is funded by the 'EXCELSIOR': ERATOSTHENES: Excellence Research Centre for Earth Surveillance and Space-Based Monitoring of the Environment H2020 Widespread Teaming project (http://www.excelsior2020.eu/). The 'EXCELSIOR' project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Grant Agreement No 857510, from the Government of the Republic of Cyprus through the Directorate General for the European Programmes, Coordination and Development and the Cyprus University of Technology.
The authors also acknowledge the Erasmus+ CHANGES project: Cultural Heritage and Archaeology for the study and dissemination of Natural, Geological, Environmental and Social events due to climate changes in antiquity: learning from the past for a better awareness in the future [Project 2024-1-CY01-KA220-HED-000256266]. It is funded by the European Union. Views and opinions expressed are, however, those of the author only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the Foundation for the Management of European Lifelong Learning Programmes. Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held responsible for them.
The authors also acknowledge the Erasmus+ CHANGES project: Cultural Heritage and Archaeology for the study and dissemination of Natural, Geological, Environmental and Social events due to climate changes in antiquity: learning from the past for a better awareness in the future [Project 2024-1-CY01-KA220-HED-000256266]. It is funded by the European Union. Views and opinions expressed are, however, those of the author only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the Foundation for the Management of European Lifelong Learning Programmes. Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held responsible for them.
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1-s2.0-S2352409X26003822-main.pdf
Size
29.82 MB
Format
Adobe PDF
Checksum (MD5)
93244a9e9d5f698b4e3b81acf9a4bc51
Scopus Subject Areas
Archeology (arts and humanities)
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Archeology