Autistic Traits, Language & Cognition in Bidialectal Individuals
Date Issued
May 2023
Author(s)
Abstract
This research aims to examine (1) the reliability and validity of two questionnaires measuring
autistic traits—the Autism-Spectrum (AQ) [1] and Systemizing Quotient (SQ) [2]—in
neurotypical, young-adult bidialectal participants who speak two Greek dialects—Cypriot and
Standard Modern Greek; and (2) the effect of autistic traits on aspects of verbal and non-verbal
cognition—vocabulary and non-verbal fluid intelligence, respectively—in the same sample.
Past research has examined the linguistic and cognitive effects of Autism Spectrum Disorder
and of autistic traits in monolingual and, to a lesser extent, in bilingual speakers [e.g., 3, 4].
However, to date, there has been no comprehensive examination of how autistic traits impact
language and cognition in bidialectal individuals [though see e.g., 5]. Moreover, widely-used
questionnaires for quantifying autistic traits and for identifying individuals who possibly need
clinical referral for full diagnosis of the Autism Spectrum Disorder—including the AQ and
SQ—have typically been developed for use with English-speaking and with monolingual
individuals [e.g., 1, 2]. Thus, it is an open empirical question whether such questionnaires are
appropriate for use with speakers of other languages or dialects (e.g., Greek) and, importantly,
with bidialectal individuals. Based on past research indicating that autistic individuals
frequently exhibit an uneven cognitive profile with higher perceptual but lower verbal
reasoning [3, 6], we predicted similar effects of autistic traits within our bidialectal sample;
that is, a negative effect on vocabulary but no effect on non-verbal fluid intelligence.
One hundred and sixty-three young adults (mean age=22, SD=4.4, 37 male) took the ΑQ,
SQ, WASI matrix reasoning (WASI) [7], Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) [8] non-verbal
fluid intelligence tasks, and a vocabulary test. More data is currently being collected.
Both quotients showed adequate overall internal reliability (Cronbach’s α=.71 and .90,
respectively) but internal consistency was low for the separate AQ sub-scales (α from .41 for
Imagination to .64 for Attention to Detail). Also, the quotients correlated significantly (r=.19,
p(two-tailed)<.05), consistent with past research in English [2]. We formed composite scores
for related variables by averaging relevant z-transformed measures (in parentheses): Autism
(AQ, SQ total) and fluid intelligence scores (WASI, SPM). There was a small-to-medium but
non-significant gender effect on Autism score indicating higher autistic traits for males than
females (F(1,152)=1.80, p>.05, Cohen’s d=.29), again, partly in line with previous work [1, 2].
Finally, higher autistic traits had a marginally non-significant negative effect on vocabulary
(r=-.18, p(two-tailed)=.074) but no significant effect on fluid intelligence (r=-.06, p(twotailed)>.05).
While this research is still ongoing and more data is being collected, our results suggest that
similar effects of autistic traits as previously reported for English-speaking monolingual
individuals seem to hold for Greek-speaking bidialectal speakers. Moreover, the AQ and SQ
are useful tools for quantifying autistic traits in this sample. We are currently conducting
additional analyses to examine how autistic traits interact with different bidialectal experiences
(e.g., degree of dialect/language switching or of using a second dialect/language) in affecting
language and non-verbal cognition. Future work should also investigate the potential of the AQ
and SQ for screening individuals possibly having the Autism Spectrum Disorder.
autistic traits—the Autism-Spectrum (AQ) [1] and Systemizing Quotient (SQ) [2]—in
neurotypical, young-adult bidialectal participants who speak two Greek dialects—Cypriot and
Standard Modern Greek; and (2) the effect of autistic traits on aspects of verbal and non-verbal
cognition—vocabulary and non-verbal fluid intelligence, respectively—in the same sample.
Past research has examined the linguistic and cognitive effects of Autism Spectrum Disorder
and of autistic traits in monolingual and, to a lesser extent, in bilingual speakers [e.g., 3, 4].
However, to date, there has been no comprehensive examination of how autistic traits impact
language and cognition in bidialectal individuals [though see e.g., 5]. Moreover, widely-used
questionnaires for quantifying autistic traits and for identifying individuals who possibly need
clinical referral for full diagnosis of the Autism Spectrum Disorder—including the AQ and
SQ—have typically been developed for use with English-speaking and with monolingual
individuals [e.g., 1, 2]. Thus, it is an open empirical question whether such questionnaires are
appropriate for use with speakers of other languages or dialects (e.g., Greek) and, importantly,
with bidialectal individuals. Based on past research indicating that autistic individuals
frequently exhibit an uneven cognitive profile with higher perceptual but lower verbal
reasoning [3, 6], we predicted similar effects of autistic traits within our bidialectal sample;
that is, a negative effect on vocabulary but no effect on non-verbal fluid intelligence.
One hundred and sixty-three young adults (mean age=22, SD=4.4, 37 male) took the ΑQ,
SQ, WASI matrix reasoning (WASI) [7], Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) [8] non-verbal
fluid intelligence tasks, and a vocabulary test. More data is currently being collected.
Both quotients showed adequate overall internal reliability (Cronbach’s α=.71 and .90,
respectively) but internal consistency was low for the separate AQ sub-scales (α from .41 for
Imagination to .64 for Attention to Detail). Also, the quotients correlated significantly (r=.19,
p(two-tailed)<.05), consistent with past research in English [2]. We formed composite scores
for related variables by averaging relevant z-transformed measures (in parentheses): Autism
(AQ, SQ total) and fluid intelligence scores (WASI, SPM). There was a small-to-medium but
non-significant gender effect on Autism score indicating higher autistic traits for males than
females (F(1,152)=1.80, p>.05, Cohen’s d=.29), again, partly in line with previous work [1, 2].
Finally, higher autistic traits had a marginally non-significant negative effect on vocabulary
(r=-.18, p(two-tailed)=.074) but no significant effect on fluid intelligence (r=-.06, p(twotailed)>.05).
While this research is still ongoing and more data is being collected, our results suggest that
similar effects of autistic traits as previously reported for English-speaking monolingual
individuals seem to hold for Greek-speaking bidialectal speakers. Moreover, the AQ and SQ
are useful tools for quantifying autistic traits in this sample. We are currently conducting
additional analyses to examine how autistic traits interact with different bidialectal experiences
(e.g., degree of dialect/language switching or of using a second dialect/language) in affecting
language and non-verbal cognition. Future work should also investigate the potential of the AQ
and SQ for screening individuals possibly having the Autism Spectrum Disorder.